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type Ia. But the significant features in this section that may be comprehended at
a glance are, first, the order of succession; second, the stratigraphic unconformity;
and third, the relatively small thickness of water-laid deposits.

Beginning with culture-strata, we come face to face with several problems.
Ghiaur Kala was a great city and one of fame. Its ruined walls inclose an area
of more than 1.5 square miles, wherein there still remains a plateau of the débris
of civilization rising to a height of over 50 feet above the surrounding desert,
while the citadel itself attains a height of nearly 90 feet. Did occupation of this
whole area begin on virgin ground, or was a part already occupied by some more
ancient town when the greater city was laid out? Or, in either case, was the inner
city founded at the same time as the whole? And after the whole city was laid
out with its present outlines, was it occupied continuously till abandoned, or was
it abandoned and reoccupied one or more times?

In the shafts, as in the main excavations, there was found no sharp transition
showing change of culture, and no one of them passed from culture into irrigation.
Moreover, if there had been a town there before, we should expect to find its pot-
tery or some trace, such as charcoal or ashes, in the natural sediments under
irrigation and culture-strata, as was invariably the way at Anau; but such is not
the case. Though our evidence is in part merely negative, the city of Ghiaur
Kala seems to have been founded on a desert surface of sand-invaded loess-steppe,
partially buried in alluvium, and irrigation seems to have started simultaneously
with it. And the fact that genuine culture-strata attains the same thickness above
the citadel's foundation as it does in the plateau of the outer city is evidence
pointing to a simultaneous occupation of both.

With irrigation deposits we find that 12 feet is apparently the average depth,
surprisingly little when considering the antiquity attributed to Merv; 15 feet
was the average at Anau and we had thought of Merv as an oasis of such ancient
importance that it must have introduced irrigation long before, and, with the whole
Murg-ab to draw upon, been able to maintain bountifully rather than sparsely
watered gardens from the beginning. Then what is the explanation of its shallow-
ness? Obviously we must choose between three possibilities—either the rate of
growth was less, or irrigation was introduced later, or it was in no given area carried
on so uninterruptedly here, as at Anau. Surely there is silt enough in the river to
give a growth as rapid as the Anau, and Ghiaur Kala was founded earlier than
irrigation is supposed to have been introduced there. We are driven to the con-
clusion that the gardens of Ghiaur Kala were of a wandering sort, shifting out and
back and sideways around the city, according to complications in the canal system
and conditions of soil. Large areas are in our days from time to time abandoned
for fresh land on account of the efflorescence produced by prolonged irrigation with
saline water.

Natural sediments fall next in the order of antiquity. They lie directly under
culture and irrigation silt and over dunes and loess. Here, again, we are surprised
by shallowness. Except for the interesting masses of obviously rapid formation
that appear to fill depressions of the old loess topography in shafts 6 and 7, the